The Era of Exploration and East Asia in the 16th Century with the Imjin War
In the late 15th century, European explorers pioneered new sea routes to uncharted territories, including Asia. Among these adventurers, Portuguese merchants made significant inroads into China and Japan, introducing advanced weaponry such as Fankish guns and matchlock muskets.
During this time, the Joseon Dynasty witnessed the emergence of factional politics as rural neo-Confucian scholars, known as sarim (literally, “forest of scholars”), gained prominence within the central bureaucracy. Across the provinces, these scholars established private academies and village covenants in efforts to foster stability within local communities. Simultaneously, issues such as land concentration and disruptions in the tax collection system fueled widespread thefts and revolts.
The Ming Dynasty of China faced constant threats from Mongolia in the north and Japan in the south, coupled with internal rebellions across its provinces, straining the resources of the state. Upon the ascension of the Wanli Emperor, Senior Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng initiated measures to enhance national security and enact political reforms. Despite these efforts, China’s position as the preeminent power in East Asia remained precarious.
One War, Three Perspectives
The Imjin War, lasting seven years from 1592 in East Asia, holds different meanings for Korea, China, and Japan. Koreans call it “Imjin Waeran”, recalling Japan’s invasions in 1592. In China, it’s “Kangwo Yunchao,” signifying aid to Joseon during the Wanli era. Japan terms it “the war of Bunroku-Keicho,” spanning from 1592 to 1615.
The conflict commenced with Japan’s incursion into Joseon, but with the intervention of Ming forces, it evolved into an international conflagration encompassing Korea, China, and Japan. Therefore, the Imjin War must be understood beyond the confines of any single nation’s perspective, within the broader historical context that considers the collective destinies of the three Asian nations.
Outbreak of the Seven-Year Imjin War
In 1590, Daimyo Toyotomi Hideyoshi unified Japan and in August 1591, publicly declared his intention to invade Joseon to other daimyo across the nation. Following extensive preparations, Japanese forces under Konishi Yukinaga departed from Hizen Nagoya Castle in March 1592, swiftly capturing Busanjin Fortress and Dongnae Fortress before advancing towards the capital, Hanseong, marking the onset of the seven-year war.
The conflict erupted due to various factors, including Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s ambition to conquer Joseon, reestablish commercial ties with Ming China, and address territorial disputes among daimyo.
An International War in East Asia and Peace Talks
Upon the outbreak of hostilities, Joseon sought military aid from the Ming Dynasty of China. In January 1593, the joint Joseon-Ming forces, led by General Li Rusong, recaptured the Pyeongyang Fortress, a pivotal turning point in the war. However, following a decisive defeat at Byekjegwan, the Ming forces initiated peace negotiations with Japan.
Despite King Seonjo’s vehement opposition, the Ming Dynasty pursued peace talks with Japan. Negotiations faltered over terms; the Ming Dynasty proposed installing Toyotomi as the King of Japan in exchange for withdrawal, while Japan demanded the Ming emperor’s recognition and the cession of four Joseon provinces. Although the Ming Dynasty issued Toyotomi a certificate acknowledging him as Japan’s king in September 1596, the peace negotiations collapsed due to Toyotomi’s dissatisfaction with unmet demands, prompting a renewed invasion of Joseon.
Japan’s Reinvasion of 1597 (Jeongyu Jaeran) and Imjin War’s End
In 1597 the Japanese launched another invasion of Joseon, leading Joseon to request military assistance from the Ming Dynasty once again. By this point, Admiral Yi Sun-Shin (you will see his statue along with King Sejong‘s statue at the Gwnghwamun plaza!) had already been demoted and Won Gyun was appointed to take his place. However, the Won Gyun-led forces experienced a complete defeat, allowing the southern coast of Josen to fall into Japanese hands and freeing the Japanese to advance to the southeastern and southwestern provinces of the peninsula.
But the situation turned in Joseon’s favor with counterattacks by Ming forces and the return of Admiral Yi Sun-Shin to the fray. As the Japanese found it difficult to advance toward the north, they built fortresses along the southern coast for a long-term occupation. The allied forces of Joseon and Ming attacked the Ulsan Japanese Fortress between December 1597 and January 1598, but their efforts failed. In August 1598, Toyotomi Hideyoshi died and the Ming troops again attacked the Japanese fortresses in Ulsan, Sacheon, and Suncheon. Meanwhile, the Joseon-Ming allied forces led by Admiral Yi Sun-Shin defeated the Japanese at Noryang who had been on the way to withdrawing from Suncheon Japanese Fortress, putting an end to seven years of war.
(Source from Jinju National Museum)
